Discussions regarding extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation all too often succumb to an overly simplified framing that depicts rewards as always problematic and detrimental to intrinsic motivation. In fact, rewards can be effective under certain conditions, especially related to any behavior that is not intrinsically motivating for an individual. 

So, how do we reconcile the basic principles of operant learning (reinforcement and punishment) with the potential negative effects of external contingencies on intrinsic motivation? Again, the answer has to do with satisfaction of one’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and belonging. Let’s explore some types of reward contingencies and their consequences using the example of rewarding students for participation and performance in an in-class math assignment. The following examples are adapted from TABLE 6.1. Contingencies Used for Administering Tangible Rewards That Are Expected and Salient (Ryan & Deci, 2018, p. 132).

In the math example above, we can see that task-dependent contingencies, like those for engagement, completion, performance, and competition, are more likely to undermine future autonomy (and often competence), while a task-independent contingency, or an outcome nonspecific to the task, generally does not undermine intrinsic motivation for that task in the future. 

When perceived as controlling or coercive, externally administered rewards and other contingencies undermine one’s sense of autonomy, alienate oneself from one’s true values and interests, reduce one’s quality of engagement and performance, and impair one’s general wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2018, p. 125). Although rewards can motivate individuals’ immediate behavior, research has consistently shown that rewards can also negatively impact the maintenance of intrinsically motivated behaviors over time, as well as the interest and enjoyment associated with those behaviors (Ryan & Deci, 2018, p. 127).

However, specific types of rewards, when carefully applied, can represent a form of informational feedback that signals competence. This positive feedback also conveys a sense that the person administering the reward cares about the receiver and has their best interests in mind, which can create a positive feedback loop based on a caring and trusting relationship.

Self-Reinforcement

One may also choose self-reinforcement, a self-regulatory strategy in which one rewards oneself with a simple, small, genuinely desired, and guilt-free reward (e.g., watching a movie, hanging out with friends, going on vacation) whenever one’s behavior matches self-prescribed standards of performance. The advantage of self-reinforcement is that it’s autonomous, focused on personal progress (rather than competition or conformity), and meant to cultivate self-approval and self-acceptance. Students can reflect upon their own values and interests when setting and monitoring goals, and when implementing their own small rewards for their effort.

The Joy of Effort

“Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example, social responsibility and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.”

(International Olympic Committee, 2016, p. 16)

Finally, we suggest that not all forms of competition are harmful. Consider, for example, the most renowned competitive venue in the world: the Olympic Games. The quote above is stated as the first of the Fundamental Principles of Olympism in the Olympic Charter. Similarly conceived, among the three core values of Olympism, along with respect and friendship, is excellence.

“Excellence means doing the best we can, on the field of play or in our professional life. The important thing is not winning, but taking part, making progress and enjoying the healthy combination of body, will and mind.”

(International Olympic Committee, 2016, p. 17)

Few would argue that most Olympic athletes are not masters of their sports or they do not really want to win. However, the spirit of competition captured in these principles and values reflects a non-standard conceptualization of competition. Here, the true “game” is competition with oneself. Instead of merely “beating” an opponent or feeling envious of their success, the focus of self-competition and “winning” is the process itself— taking part, making progress and enjoying the healthy combination of body, will, and mind.

In practice, it may be true the Olympic Games do not (and have never) lived up to these principles and values. It would not be the first human institution to fall short of its ideals. Nevertheless, these words offer a healthier conceptualization of competitive culture, particularly when considered with the complimentary values of courage (seeking to accomplish what others deem unexpected but what the individual knows as truth), determination (pushing one’s ability to the absolute limit), inspiration, and equality (acting as an agent for change to break down social barriers of discrimination) espoused by the Paralympic Games (International Paralympic Committee, n.d.). Each person experiences a combination of gifts and challenges that is entirely unique to them. Therefore, it can be said the truest and most meaningful competition in life is self-competition, or continuously improving one’s personal best. One way educators can encourage self-competition is by providing rich feedback on students’ work that details areas of content mastery, progress gained, and improvement needed.

As previously stated, the main factor determining the impact of rewards, feedback, and other outcomes on intrinsic motivation is the psychological meaning of those conditions experienced by the individuals receiving them. In other words, it is an individual’s perception of events as informational, controlling, or amotivating that either supports or hinders autonomy and competence, and, therefore, intrinsic motivation. 

Certain types of contingencies are more likely to be experienced as controlling or coercive than others. However, the manner in which such contingencies are perceived will also depend on the unique histories, personalities, and thinking styles of the individuals involved, which is why building mutually trusting relationships is so important.